Móng Zi
A Dossier about the Chinese Philosopher Mencius (372-289 B.C.)
adapted from Richard Wilhelm 1994 [1]
by Kristian Rother
"Only who is incapable of some things, is able to achieve other deeds."(IV.B.8)
Einleitung
Móng Zi, in Latin Mencius, is among the most significant minds in Chinese history. His teaching touches all parts of society from family matters to the highest political decisions. He gives moral advice to his audience, but also very particular instructions for action. Mong Zi is a follower of the teachings of Kóng Zi, in Latin Confucius, the thoughts of whom are reflected often in the writing of Mencius. But Móng Zi mathches his predecessor in his crystal-clear thoughts, and by strongly emphasized arguments. His writing consists of seven books, that contain the Zeitgeist of his era. But many of his teachings still apply. Here, I will summarize the philosophy and action of Móng Zi in the historical context.
The references in brackets refer to the German book [1].
China during the era of Móng Zi
In the fourth and third century B.C., China was in a transient state. The origins of the culture had become myth - the country already looked back on two millenia of civilization. The old Sòng dynasty had fallen apart, and the fertile area between the two big streams was reigned by a growing number of small rivalling states. This epoch of 'rivalry of kingdoms' was only ended in 210 B.C., when Qín Shihuang, the first emperor of China, united all land below heaven (tian xià) by force [2]. According to that times view, the world was a flat disc, but heaven had a square shape, so that the barbarian states surrounding China had no heaven above them. Therefore, the concept 'world' of that time always refers to all China.
Despite the political confusion many of the local rulers supported arts and science. This led to a culture of wandering scholars, similar to the sophists in ancient greece. At the court, they acted both as advisors and as entertainment. Móng Zi himself taught at multiple courts, and this profession consists a major part of his writing.
Philosophy
Man is good by nature, is a basic statement of Móng Zi. Therefore, it is natural for man to attain happyness by fulfilling ones duty towards the ruler, the family, and by benevolence towards all of mankind.
In exemplary dialogs and situations, he describes how to behave respectfully, benevolent, or conscious of his duty. He frequently emphasizes the importance of superficial things in public and private life: That presents always require a reason (otherwise it would be a bribe, V.B.4). That subordinates need to be adressed according to their positions (he recommends inobedience if this is neglected, III.B.1). That a scholar should be invited by a ruler personally. And last but not least, that a husband should indicate himself when coming home (he fogot this himself one time, surprising his wife half-dressed and thereby ashaming her). Móng Zi defines these basic relationships as basic pillars of any society.
To support his teaching, Móng Zi refers frequently to famous statesmen and saints (the distinction between which is often vague) from the early history of China. To the western reader, it is often obscure, what events he exactly refers to, but it still becomes clear that mentioning the moral purity of the ancients from a golden age points to the descence that he observed during his time (IV.B.29).
Móng Zi engages in fiery discussions with the scholars of his time, and almost considers it a sportive contest to demolish the arguments of his opponents (VI.A.1ff). But if he regards somebody to be unworthy of his respect, he gets very nasty (II.B.6). He also shows little respect to the ruling class, and describes this as a prerequisite for his job: “Who wants to improve a rulers actions, needs to despise him first.” (VII.B.34). Here, the immense self-confidence of the master shows itself, that often results in being stubborn (II.B.12).
“Love for the human being is the most natural state of mind. Duty is the natural way of man.” (VI.A.11)
“Once Duke Ging of Tsi was hunting. He called for his forester with a flag (instead of a fur cap). The forester did not come, and the Duke almost had him executed. A determined man never forgets that he can end on the roadside or in a pond, a brave man never forgets that he might lose his head one day. ” (III.B.1)
“Gung-Sun Tschou spoke: A minister is not a low man, and the way from Tsi to Tong is not short. You did the journey together twice, but did not speak a single word with him over the business. How come? Mong Zi spoke: Hence he already seemed to know everything, what should I have talked with him about?” (II.B.6)
“I crossed the border, and the King did not send anyone for me. Only then it was when I let my decision to return home run free. But still! The King is a man who can be brought into doing good. If the King would have needed me, not only the people of Tsi would have had peace, all people on earth would have.” (II.B.12)
“Mong Zi spoke: Is the white of a white feather equivalent to the white of the snow, and is the white of the snow equivalent to the white of marble? Gau Zi agreed. Mong Zi spoke: Then, the nature of the dog is equivalent to the nature of the ox, and the nature of the ox equivalent to that of man?” (VI.A.3)
Family
For Móng Zi the family as the basic unit of society above the state. The individual is the basis of the family (IV.A.5). Here, he applies the principles of his philosophy. Respect to parents and marriage come in the first place. He recommends noblemen given the choice between family and profession, to decide for the family (III.A.2) – and lives that by example (he once left an honorful position, to care for his sick mother). He often emphasizes the importance of mourning ceremonies and -periods – which might be a hint that these were often neglected in his era (II.B.7). Furthermore, he recommends parents, not to teach their offspring by themselves, for not endangering the harmony of the family (IV.A.18). He even gives an example that insubordination to the parents will can serve the duty in the family (V.A.2):
”The being together of man and woman in marriage is the most important of human relationships. If he had announced his wedding plans to his parents, he would have missed this most important relationship, and this would have enraged his parents as well. Therefore, he did not announce them. (V.A.2)
”If one does not act by rationale, not even ones wife and children can live according to that. If one gives orders that are against rationale, not even wife and children can obey them.” (VII.B.9)
“People taking their words easily, do not have to carry responsibility.” (IV.A.22)
Politics
Móng Zi sees it as his mission to guide a nobleman to attaining world domination. What sounds like a drastic goal, turns out to be a human form of globalization: The leader shall lead his state that well, just and peacefully, that every neighbor would like to live within his realm. He shall be the first servant of the state, using welfare(?) instead of usefulness as a guideline for his actions – as an example for all his citizens. He rejects war and armed conflicts between independent states, but recommends armed action as a matter to punish inable or insubordinate vasalls as reasonable (III.B.5). He keeps repeating that consequently implementing these guidelines would inevitably lead to ruling the world, and deviation from them to downfall (IV.A.2ff).
Tragically history proves the correctness of only the second statement: Several of the noblemen for which Móng Zi worked as advisor rejected his counsel, and suffered from terrible setbacks in their domestic and foreign policy. The ignored teacher repeatedly left disappointed, and not even rich gifts could make him stay (II.B.10).
“The Duke of Go came with his men, and captured those who brought wine, rice, and other crops, and took their goods away. Those who did not give, were slain. There was also a boy carrying crops and meat for the workers. Go killed him and seized the goods. [..] For killing that boy, Tang came to punish him. And all the world spoke: This one does not seek the wealth of world domination, he just wants to help two common parents have their revenge. [..] When he was went to punish the lords in the east, the western barbarians were unhappy. When he turned south, those in the north were dissatisfied, and spoke: Why is he coming to us the last?” (III.B.5)
“If the King speaks: "What is advantageous for my realm?", the noble houses will speak: "What is advantageous for our house?" And the noblemen and peasants will speak: "What serves our own advantage?" Then, higher and lower will try to attain an advantage over each other, and as a result the realm falls into danger.” (I.A.1)
“If you, o King, will be benevolent in your reign, so that all officials strive to serve your court, all peasants strive to plough your lands, all traders strive to bring their goods to your market, all wanderers want to travel on your roads, so that all on earth who are dissatisfied with their rulers, come and seek to accuse him before you: Who caould prevent that from happening?” (I.A.7)
“... Mong Zi continued: If the prison keeper is unable to keep order in his prison, what shall be done to him? The King spoke: He shall be dismissed! Mong Zi continued: If the land is in unrest, what should be done then? The King turned to his company and spoke of other things” (I.B.6)
Móng Zi does not restrict himself to ideals: He gives explicit patterns for good management of a state: low taxes, work duty as alternative to per-capita taxation of peasants; division of territory in one governmental and eight private ninths; nullification of custom taxes in foreign trade. (II.A.5, III.A.3, V.B.2) He never loses the welfare of people out of attention, even when annecting foreign states (I.B.10f).
“The people are the most important, the gods of the land and crops come second, and the leader is the least important. Thus, who gains the favor of the common people will rule the world. [..] When a leader endangers the altars of land and crops, he shall be replaced by a different one. [..] If the sacrifices have been given properly, but there is drought or famine anyway, the gods shall be dethroned, and others set in place.” (VII.B.14)
Mencius and Confucius
Although only three generations apart, the change in society shows in their work. While Kóng Zi pseaks mildly and benevolently, the texts of Móng Zi are of a rough character. The basic principles are the same in both, but the latter presses on his opinion energetically, sometimes to the point of being stubborn. But there are also examples of pragmatism, e.g. that it is acceptable to take a gift given in an improper way to save oneself from starvation (a very real danger for some of Móng Zis colleagues). For this reason, Móng Zis philosophy cannot be called an out-of-the-world.
Móng and Kóng are by the way the family names. Zi is pronounced with a mute vowel.
References:
[1] Wilhelm, Richard (1994) Mong Dsi – Die Lehrgespräche des Meisters Meng K´o; Diedrichs Gelbe Reihe
[2] Zhang, Yimou; Li, Jet; Cheung, Maggie et al. (2003) Ying Xiong (HERO); UCI Kinowelt